The History of Nuclear Power Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The History of Nuclear Power - Research Paper Example As a general rule, most of these crucial factors actually denote natural phenomena, whether discovered by sheer chance or due to meticulous research, possessing enormous potential for both destruction and creation; while others appear a genuinely human invention. Notwithstanding their origin, however, the way these factors have been mastered and harnessed to humanity’s advantage reflects the very human nature to test, to observe, and to dream (US Department of Energy/US DOE/, n.d.). Having played their crucial part in the development of Egypt’s ancient societies – the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms – the Nile River annual floods could be considered, beyond any doubt, one of the above-mentioned core phenomena; while the institution of slavery in ancient Rome brought about that little-known settlement on the River Tiber to be transformed into the hub of the then world. Without the driving force of spice trade in medieval times, there might have not come about the Age of Discovery, and neither would the Industrial Revolution without the steam engine. In turn, the commercial drilling for petroleum, which had started at some point in the mid-nineteenth century, not only drove the world into the modernity, but also became the mainspring of present-day geopolitics of the world. The late 1890s, however, witnessed the discovery of a natural phenomenon, which have been given the name ‘radioactivity’ by Marie and Pierre Curie, and later defined by Ernest Rutherford as a spontaneous event emitting alpha or beta particles from the atomic nuclei, and creating a different element (World Nuclear Association /WNA/, 2010). The consequent exploration of this phenomenon had involved many scientists from different countries across the world – from Niels Bohr, Frederick Soddy, James Chadwick, and Enrico Fermi, to Otto Frisch, etc. – and produced major breakthroughs, including the discovery of radionuclides and neutron, as well as the experimental conformation of Albert Einstein’s concept of mass-energy equivalence (WNA, 2010). Exploration of the Atom The idea that invisible particles constitute all matter in the universe is being first developed by ancient Greek philosophers (US DOE, n.d.). The name of those particles – atoms – comes from one of the meanings of the Greek word (atomos), or indivisible (US DOE, n.d.; Liddell and Scott, 1940). This idea reigned supreme at least until the late eighteenth century, but it was not earlier than the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when the concept had been revised by scientific experiments (US DOE, n.d.). Following the discovery of Uranium in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Klaproth, who named it after the recently discovered planet Uranus (Herschel and Hoskin, 2003; WNA, 2010), there was a gap of nearly 100 years during which nothing in this field of science was to get excited about. In November 1895, Professor Wilhelm Conrad Ro ntgen of the Wurzburg University had unintentionally produced â€Å"a hitherto unknown form of radiant energy that was invisible, could cause fluorescence, and passed through objects opaque to light†, which he named x-rays (Novelline, 2004); six years later Wilhelm Rontgen was awarded the first Nobel Prize in physics for the discovery of ionizing

Environmental Experiences Essay Example for Free

Environmental Experiences Essay The capability of a location to enhance environmental experience depends on the landscape and its potential to foster and create subjective interpretations among individuals. These places also are significant to visitors since it promotes education and other indirect effects. Recognizing the need for architecture is important for people to fully understand and feel the landscape experience. The Tree Top Walk at the Valley of Giants in Australia â€Å"is a walkway that rises up to 38m above the forest. † Visitors can be able to create the feeling of environment. Visitors get a different perspective on the shapes, sounds and movement of the forest. The Oregon Paleo Lands Institute will help you discover Oregons past and explore its present landscapes. The place helps educate individuals and visitors of the wonders the place has to offer. Our mission is to help northwest residents and visitors of all ages to explore, understand, and enjoy the world-renowned natural history of north central Oregon, the ancient and living landscapes of Oregon’s last 400 million years, and the full fossil record of earth’s last 50 million years. The Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center in Texas seeks to inform individuals of the diverse native plants in the region. First as the National Wildflower Research Center and later as the Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, this special place exists to introduce people to the beauty and diversity of wildflowers and other native plants. This is in response to the threats and the call for preservation of these plants. These places help enhance their experience of understanding landscape by how each one creates the feeling of satisfaction and cultivate the feeling of appreciation that contributes to the landscape experience. It must be a mixture of both understanding and at the same time appreciation of his/her perceptive abilities. However, an individual must not only settle for what is observable. The visitor must create and conceptualize his/her own interpretation of the landscape. This image will bear some relationship to the way in which the individual responds to and structures his world as a result of his physical perceptual capacities, socio-economic, cultural, personality, experiential and other characteristics. The three types of places mentioned give both direct and indirect experiences to the visitor. Looking at it, the area of indirect experiences is classified to be relative. An experience of an individual may vary depending on how each one perceives a landscape and associates it to personal experience. A person feeling can range from curiosity over the landscape to happiness and awe. There are varied reactions among people and this creates different reactions that cultivate experience. On the other hand, there are also direct experiences that the landscape contributes to a visitor. These are (1) education, (2) environmental education and (3) interpretative centers. Education can be considered as one important contributions of landscape experience. It creates awareness that has been stimulated by the actuality of perceiving, analyzing and understanding the landscape. A visitor creates its connection with the landscape by the way it manifests itself to the viewer and in return how the person responds to it given the factors that revolve around the environment and the individual. Thus, this creates the process of education for each visitor. Environmental education can also be seen as an outcome of landscape experience since the three examples that were given are primarily natural or ecological sites. Landscape experiences gives idea to visitors of the current situation of these sites. This experience creates awareness especially during this time that the call for environmental concern has been constantly increasing. Effective and meaningful environmental education is a challenge we must take seriously if we and future generations are to enjoy the benefits of our natural heritage. Thus, landscape experiences creates an avenue for environmental education by showcasing visitors the beauty and wonder of these sites and how each one is responsible for its protection and continued sustenance. The last mentioned is landscape experience creates interpretative centers. Landscape experience gives opportunities for interpretative centers to provide adequate information regarding the site. Also, interpretative centers provide cultivate interests of volunteers and organizations to further promote the site. Architecture plays an important role in landscape experience. People who have background in the topic understand that its facets are diversified. To fully appreciate architecture, students need to deconstruct its meaning from a variety of perspectives: artistic, social, and scientific. Architecture serves as a guide for visitors to engage in their local landscape. The idea is that each individual seeks find meaning and experience in the landscape however this cannot be done without an understanding architecture. Another is that architecture’ diversity and varied perspectives paves the way for an increased landscape experience among visitors. Different meanings and interpretations are derived from these sites that foster deeper learning experiences. There are many variants and factors that determine the landscape experience of an individual. The capability of an individual to associate the landscape with an understanding of architecture and different subjective interests’ can create a meaningful and worthwhile experience. The full appreciation of the environment experience again is achieved if a learning process is obtained by the individual upon exposure to the landscape.

Polygamy and monogamy practices

Polygamy and monogamy practices Since creation, according to bible, God created man and woman as well as animals which were both male and female. In such a situations where there exists animals of different sex, it allows the reproduction and stability of one generation after another generation. Human beings are known social beings, and in most cases need one another to survive, therefore its difficult to exclusively depend on themselves. To produce offspring, they usually marry and have children which in turn, becomes the standard of creation for the human population. Even though we all share the similarity of being human beings, there still exists differences in what we believe in and the values that we attach to various things. One of these things, is the topic of marriage, which by definition, is a reunion of a man and a woman to come together and live together as a husband and wife. Due to the diverse objectives that people have in marriage, some people consider that having one wife (monogamy) is the ideal met hod, whereas others believe in having a number of wives (polygamy) (Family,2009). This paper seeks to have an in-depth look at the two issues; polygamy and monogamy by looking at what the proponents of each thinks about it as well as look at countries that have practiced them. It will also look at pros and cons of each as well, and why people should respect one another despite which side they take. Last but not least, the paper will analyze the cultural beliefs of the two groups and dig deeper on why they hold on their beliefs and reasons they give to support their stand. Monogamy, is one of the most widely used form of marriage and its supporters believe in one man/woman to one wife/husband. Monogamy is derived from the Greek word mono, which means alone, and gamos, meaning re-union or marriage. It is believed that the majority of the human race practice monogamy as opposed to polygamy. One benefit considered of monogamy, is that it increases the chances of offspring survival because the parents collaborate together and raise the child ( Edward,1928). This perception does seem to be changing with time due to complexities of fast paced, modern life though. In the past, it was common for men to go to work while the woman was supposed to maintain the house hold duties, which also included raising the children. The modern world has changed this though, and now there is no distinct roles between men and women. Equally now, both must work hard to cope and deal with the challenges of modern life. Monogamy can be categorized and broken into four groups: soci al monogamy, sexual monogamy, marital monogamy and genetic monogamy. There exists small differences between these groups and that is why this paper all discussion will be centered on the man and woman perspective of monogamy. Many communities have in the past and are currently now practicing monogamy. Monogamy is as old as Adam and Eve, for during creation, God created one woman and one man. It is anticipated by some people that Christianity has a connection with the origin of monogamy ( Edward,1928). Europe just happens to be one of the countries where Christianity took its toll and spread rapidly. Before Christianity, Europe practiced polygamy. The roman culture believed in monogamy to such an extent that those who failed to observe the rules, faced dire consequences. Due to the severe penalties, some people even went to the extent of killing their wives so that they could have an opportunity of marrying another one. Cesar is an example of one who banished and killed his wife in o rder to get the opportunity of marrying another one (William,u.d.). This indicates how strong their culture laws were and how people desperately tried to abide by them. The great conqueror Napoleon, was also forced to divorce his first wife so that he could marry another one order to birth a son. This shows how deep rooted these cultures were by going to the extent of making a laws which were to be observed by all of the population. These cultures main goals were making sure the chances of immorality were reduced, as well as helping couples remain committed to each other. It is evident that no matter how strict a country was, monogamy is hard to uphold as it can be seen in Rome, where although marriage was monogamous, the sexual relationship did not follow the same, and mating was polygamous (Eshleman, 1994). People abided by the rules, and most cultural beliefs were upheld and embraced by the community. One downside to these beliefs, was lack in acceptance by all of its citizens an d some accepted it just because they lacked any alternatives. The communities that practiced monogamy stood a better chance of having families that worked together towards a common goal like raising children, giving them parental love and attention which are very crucial to the development child. As opposed to polygamous family, where most of the time the husband can not afford to be with all wives and his children at the same time. A polygamous father quite simply, cannot afford it. The children from these families are not likely in most cases to fully enjoy the parental love of both parents like those from monogamous family. In the Roman Empire, the consequences of bigamy were severe as death. This means that the citizens had no other option but to abide by them. The Empire saw it as a way to reduce the numbers of unwanted children, lower the levels of immorality, and lessen the amount of single mothers resulting from divorce, due to unfavorable conditions that arise with polygamy . Even though this culture was imitated, it still has its weakness because most its foremost people had children outside marriage as well as concubines on the side. It showed disregard for human rights, because some women were divorced or murdered so that the men could get the opportunity to marry another one. The culture also lacked proportion matching especially in comparison to modern days since the male to female ratio does not compute. This means that a great number of women would turn out to be single since their population is so high. In turn, the women who birth children out of marriage, will raise children that are not able to receive parental love from the father. Those children then do not have much choice but to lean on what they see their mother doing, and in some cases, the traits they acquire, might not be ideal ones. Polygamy is derived from the Greek word, which means the practice of having many women. This practice is very old and was practiced in many countries throughout the world. The practice is predominant in many African countries, where ones wealth is calculated in terms of how many children one has. They believe that when one person is in position to feed many mouths, that it translates to that one person having enough wealth since poor people could not afford to feed numerous children. Other countries have different reasons to why they allowed its citizens to practice polygamy. This discussion will focus on one of the African countries, Kenya, where currently, some of its communities still do practice polygamy (volume 10, 1967). Before colonization, people used to have their own standards of living as well as doctrines and laws that they had to abide by. Kenya happens to have more than 42 tribes where each tribe has its own beliefs and culture to follow. Most of these tribes, acknowledge polygamy and it is suggested by Ngugi (2006) that women once they perceive that they are reaching old age, could suggest that their husband marry another younger woman who to help him with house hold chores as well as marital needs. To many Kenyans, they believed polygamy to be essential in making it possible for the continuation of a generation. This was a time when children used to die in large numbers at extremely tender ages, due to diseases like measles, polio amongst others. It was then considered vital for a man to marry many women and reproduce many children so that even if a majority of them were dying, the hopes and chances that a few of them would survive was increased. The Kenyan culture accepted polygamy and eve n women themselves did not feel cheated nor did they object to it. A good example is the Luo community in Kenya in currently, polygamy is still practiced. Wife inheritance which is also a part of polygamy is being practiced as well (Ngugi, 2008)). According to their culture, this habit is encouraged to discourage the chances of the widowed woman from going out to look for other men, and instead be inherited by one of the brothers of her deceased husband. Another reason that is supported by those who practice polygamy, is to bring about a balance between men and women. Since the womens numbers are many, it is believed by the men practicing it, that more women in turn will be able to get husbands. The African culture means well in practicing polygamy, and has good intentions in doing so. These women and communities as a whole, believe it better to have a co-wife and abolish the need for their men to have hidden relations with other women outside the marriage. Therefore there was no more secret business, and men could inform their wives of their intention to marry another woman as they deemed right (Ngugi,2008). Lately though there has been a decline in the practice of polygamy, resulting from many people embracing Christianity i n Kenya. Many are now abiding by doctrines of the church and because of this immorality and promiscuity is on the rise. Research has shown that both married women and men are having other relationships outside their marriages, contributing to a high HIV infection rate in these groups. Polygamy is associated with such benefits as the impartiality in the distribution of wealth. This is because polygamy in most cases is practiced by men who are financially stable. By them marrying many women, there will be a steady flow of cash, either through gift or even just by merely supporting the women that he marries (William,2009). Immorality and promiscuity rates also decline along with sexually transmitted diseases, for the simple fact that a man will be content with women he has. There are also more morals imposed in such a society, and instead of women resulting to using devices such as sex toys to fulfill their needs, they stand a much better chance of getting men who will satisfy their ne eds sexually instead. Human beings are emotional and require a channel or means of satisfying those feelings. When that opportunity is not presented, they can result to other untraditional means to satisfy their emotions. Polygamy also has its shortcomings which can vary depending on how it is practiced. When it occurs with individuals who are not economically stable, children might suffer and lack basic needs due to the number of children the man will be providing for. It also neglects the children of paternal love since they can not have their father on daily basis. It can also make women feel not fully appreciated and wonder why their man would be looking at other women. In the current times, it can lead to mistrust, and increasing the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases (Mirriam, 2006). In looking at both polygamy and monogamy, each one of them seems to have its advantages and disadvantages. Keeping in mind that humans are social beings who like to interact with each other, people should learn to appreciate other peoples cultures since we can perceive things differently and what some may consider as right, may be considered as very wrong in another country. Even though this has always been a controversial topic as to what people recognize as its pertaining issues, but it is really time for people to appreciate the difference that exists between people and the only way to solve this is by learning about the positive things from the given cultural community and disregard what could be perceived to be of less importance (Jenks, 2006). Communities can not exist on their own and they require a collaboration with others to co-exist peacefully. It is important to not only realize but appreciate that there are disparities between these two types of marriages and the childre n brought out of each of them exhibit the differences in the values that they learned from their parents. Research done has indicated that children from polygamous family might have more negative attitudes towards their step siblings and are often lacking in genuine love towards each other. In extreme cases, they sometimes rise against one another and even cause bodily harm to one another. Often lacking in fatherly love, they generally seem to perceive their father in a negative light as well. All that having been said, people will continue behaving differently and that is why laws play a vital role ensuring that people abide by them and operate within those boundaries. Through social interaction, people get to discover other peoples different ways of living and their abilities to interact with each other. References Jencks E N (2009).The History and Philosophy of Marriage: Or, Polygamy and Monogamy Compared: Oxford publishers Ngugi, J. polygamy in Kenya.Nairobi. Oxford publishers. Miriam K. (2006).Polygamy: a cross-cultural analysis. New York: Up. A citizen of Massachusetts (1882).Marriage: monogamy and polygamy on the basis of divine law, of natural law University of Michigan James Campbell An international journal of social, political and legal , Volume 10: 1967: retrieved on 6/12/2009 from: n+monogamy+and+polygamylr=client=firefox-a Edward B. (1928). The Journal of general psychology, Volume 1 retrieved on 6/12/2009 from http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=Kv37YlSy7oICq=journals+on+monogamy+and+polygamydq=journals+on+monogamy+and+polygamylr=client=firefox-a Say NO to monogamy and YES to polygamy.2009. Retrieved on 6/12/2009 from http://www.hipforums.com/modules/Journal/viewentry.php?journalnoteid=13005 William M .The family, society, and the individual: retrieved on 6/12/2009 from: gamydq=journals+on+monogamy+and+polygamylr=client=firefox-a Eshleman, J. (1994). The Family. retrieved on 6/12/2009 from: ygamylr=client=firefox-a

Nikola Tesla Essay -- biographies biography bio

Tesla was born in Smiljan, Austria-Hungary (now Croatia) on July 9, 1856. He studied engineering at two institutions in Austria-Hungary--Graz Technical University (now in Austria) and the University of Prague (now in the Czech Republic). Tesla left the University of Prague in 1880, without a degree, after his father died. He then worked for a short time for Austria-Hungary's telephone system in Budapest (now in Hungary). In 1882, Tesla moved to Paris, where he worked for the Continental Edison Company. While at Graz Technical University, Tesla had seen a demonstration of a generator run as a direct-current (DC) motor. Direct current is electric current that flows in only one direction. During the demonstration, the brushes and the commutator of the motor sparked violently. The brushes are devices that conduct the current in a DC motor. The commutator continually reverses the current so that the motor continues to rotate in one direction. Tesla believed a motor without a commutator could be devised. In 1881, while walking in a park, Tesla suddenly got an idea for a simple way to produce such a device. In 1883, while on assignment for Continental Edison in Strasbourg, France, Tesla used his spare time to build his first polyphase (out-of-step) AC motor. In such a motor, coils are arranged so that when out-of-step alternating currents energize them, the resulting magnetic field rotates at a predetermined speed. In 1884, Tesla left Europe for the United States and went to work for the inventor Thomas Edison. Edison respected the young engineer but the American inventor was a strong supporter of direct current (DC), and so he had little interest in Tesla's alternating current (AC) generation, transmission, and motor ... ... creation of fluorescent lighting. During his later years he led a secluded, eccentric, and penniless life, nearly forgotten by the world he believed would someday honor him. Tesla died on Jan. 7, 1943, in New York City. It is rather sad that a man who gave the world so much, received so little for his efforts. History books have been unkind as well. Even today, many texts still credit Marconi with the invention of radio, despite the Supreme Court decision which overruled Marconi and awarded it to Tesla. In many parts of this country, people still refer to the electric utility as the 'Edison Company', even though they use the Tesla-Westinghouse alternating current system. The Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, was dedicated to the inventor after his death and in 1956 the tesla, a unit of magnetic flux density in the metric system, was named in his honor.

Women’s Struggle for Identity through Appearance

How does the writer explore their thoughts and feelings through identity? Germaine Greer talks about ‘demands' that are made upon women to change their bodies in order to look pleasing to the eyes of others. This idea that women should look a certain way and that there is only one right way. She explores the women of both the working class and the middle class and the way they struggle for identity through appearance. Greer explores her thoughts and feelings though identity by the use of language. She uses words such as ‘grossness' and ‘curvaceous' to describe women's thoughts about their bodies.It almost seems like Greer is Just talking about the pressure for women to conform. She doesn't describe in a way that shows she disagrees with women's thoughts about their bodies and the pressure to counter their bodies in order to fit in to the two categories curvy or thin. She talks about how the curvy girl who ought to be thin and the thin girl who ought to be curvy. Gre er is trying to get across the message that women's struggling with appearance in order to have the perfect body is a never ending cycle. You can be ‘curvy or thin' but the pressure to change your body never fades.She mentions how ‘a woman is tailoring herself to appeal to buyers' market. Greer suggests that women are all going through this in order to catch the attention of males. She uses the terms tailoring and ‘buyers'. This idea that women are pressured to change their bodies in order to look pleasing to men. She goes on to say that this ‘buyer' is likely to be the husband, whose accepts her for her image. She describes women as passive objects of males. I think Greer is trying show the sad reality of women; women are the ones who keep succumbing to this pressure to change their image.They are insecure and are constantly trying to change themselves. She states that women's bodies are treated as ‘aesthetic objects without function'; this causes dama ge to their bodies and the owners. Greer talks about this idea of the body meeting the soul and a ‘stereotype being born'. I think she's trying to get a cross this idea that women have this fantasy about beauty, she continues on to mention to her belongs all that is beautiful even the word beauty itself. She writes about how nature exists only to make a women appear more beautiful.For example she says â€Å"flowers die gladly so that her skin may uxuriate in their essence†. I think she's trying to get across the idea that this fantasy that women have is also what is making them succumb to the pressure. This idea of a woman's weakness being her beauty is also explored in the play Street car named desire' by William Tennessee. He introduces the character of Blanche who's similar to the women mentioned by Greer. Blanche doesn't want to accept the fact that her beauty is fading. At one point her sister Stella asks her husband to compliment her on her appearance. She mention s ‘it's her weaknesses.In the same way as these omen described by Greer, Blanche is using her beauty and sexuality to capture male attention. She understands and seems to accept that she has to keep her beautiful image in order to find a male suitor. reer's idea ot nature existing to make women beautitul links well wit n the novel ‘Beloved' by Toni Morrison. In the book the character of beloved is described with having skin as smooth's as babies. Beloved is naturally beautiful in the same way that Greer described nature making women beautiful. The fantasy of beauty the Greer described beloved seems to possess.

About “One is not born a woman” by Monique Witting Essay

Monique Wittig was born in July 3, 1935 in the Haut Rhin department in Alsace. She moved to Paris in the 1950s, where she studied at the Sorbonne. Her first novel, L’Opoponax, published by Minuit in 1964, immediately drew attention to her when it was awarded the Prix Mà ©dicis by a jury that included Nathalie Sarraute, Claude Simon, and Alain Robbe-Grillet. Praised by such influential writers, the novel was quickly translated into English, where it also won critical acclaim. Wittig became very involved in the events surrounding the revolt of students and workers in May of 1968. Like many others, she realized that the radical men leading the revolt were not inclined to share leadership. Wittig was one of the first theoreticians and activists of the new feminist movement. It was in this atmosphere of radical political action that she completed what is often considered her most influential work — Les Guà ©rillà ¨res – published in 1969. Revolutionary both in form and content, this novel has been widely translated, debated, and used as a source of ideas by many major feminist and lesbian thinkers and writers around the world. In May 1970, Wittig co-published what can be described as the manifesto of the French feminist movement. Ever since, Wittig’s works have included both fiction and non-fiction essays evolving an ongoing dialogue between theory and literary practice. Throughout the early ’70s, Wittig was a central figure in the radical lesbian and feminist movements in France. She was a founding member of such groups as the Petites Marguà ©rites, the Gouines rouges, and the Fà ©ministes rà ©volutionnaires. In 1973 she published Le Corps lesbien (translated into English in 1975 as The Lesbian Body), and in 1976 Brouillon pour un dictionnaire des amantes (translated into English in 1979 as Lesbian Peoples: Material For A Dictionary), co-authored by her partner Sande Zeig. In 1976 Wittig and Zeig moved to the United States. From that time on, Wittig turned her attention increasingly toward theoretical works, and a number of her most famous essays date from the late ’70s and early 80s. In a variety of genres ranging from the philosophical essay (â€Å"The Straight Mind†) to the parable (â€Å"Les Tchiches et les Tchouches†) she explored the intersections of lesbianism, feminism, and literary form. Most of these essays were published in two journals. She became part of the editorial collective of France’s major theoretical journal, Questions fà ©ministes, and she was advisory editor to an American journal, Feminist Issues, founded in part to make available in English the important works being published in France, notably in Questions Fà ©ministes. Her work became truly bi-lingual, as she translated her own work from English into French, and vice-versa. She also translated Djuna Barnes’s Spillway as La Passion. Earlier translations include Marcuse’s One-Dimensional Man and the Portugese The Three Marias’ Nouvelles lettres portugaises. She was a professor in women’s studies and French at theUniversity of Arizona in Tucson, where she died of a heart attack on January 3, 2003. Monique Wittig called herself a â€Å"Radical lesbian.†[5] This sensibility can be found throughout her books, where she depicted only women. To avoid any confusion, she stated: â€Å"There is no such thing as women literature for me, that does not exist. In literature, I do not separate women and men. One is a writer, or one is not. This is a mental space where sex is not determining. One has to have some space for freedom. Language allows this. This is about building an idea of the neutral which could escape sexuality†. A theorist of material feminism, she stigmatised the myth of â€Å"the woman†, called heterosexuality a political regime, and outlined the basis for a social contract which lesbians refuse: â€Å"†¦and it would be incorrect to say that lesbians associate, make love, live with women, for ‘woman’ has meaning only in heterosexual systems of thought and heterosexual economic systems. Lesbians are not women.† (1978) For Wittig, the category â€Å"woman† exists only through its relation to the category â€Å"man†, and â€Å"woman† without relation to â€Å"man† would cease to exist. Wittig also developed a critical view of Marxism which obstructed the  feminist struggle, but also of feminism itself which does not question the heterosexual dogma. Through these critiques, Wittig advocated a strong universalist position, saying that the rise of the individual and the liberation of desire require the abolition of gender categories. Main Idea Simone de Beauvoir said: â€Å"One is not born, but becomes a woman†. Wittig states that there is no â€Å"natural woman† and that the idea of being feminine is created by society. She also notes that since a lesbian society does exist, this defeats the idea of â€Å"natural woman.† However, Wittig recognizes that many people still believe the oppression of women is â€Å"biological as well as historical†. Wittig explains further that this could never be a lesbian approach to women’s oppression because it is based on the idea that the beginning of society is heterosexuality. Also, biology or the capability of having children is not enough to define Woman. Wittig also discusses the idea that sex is like race in the sense that it is visible and therefore seems to belong to some kind of natural order. This leads to the lesbian perspective that this perception of Woman is very â€Å"unnatural† because it was created and based before the women’s liberation movement. Wittig states: â€Å"To refuse to be a woman, however, does not mean that one has to become a man† . Meaning, that refusing to â€Å"be a woman† is simply just refusing to accept imposed ideas of femininity. She also clarifies: â€Å"Thus a lesbian has to be something else, a not-woman, a not-man, a product of society, not a product of nature, for there is no nature is society† It is not enough to simply promote women (â€Å"woman is wonderful† concept); it is the idea of being a man or a woman â€Å"which are political categories and not natural givens† that needs to be rejected. A materialist feminist approach sees women and men as separate classes. Therefore, the goal is â€Å"to suppress men as a class, not through a genocidal, but a political struggle† . This means that if there was no longer a class called â€Å"men,† there would no longer be a class called â€Å"women.† The first step would be to dispel the myth of Woman. Wittig states that â€Å"‘woman’ is there to confuse us, to hide the reality ‘women’† . She believes that the  new focus would be on personal identity. Wittig also presents a Marxist perspective. She states that Marxism lead to two results for women: the order of men and women was assumed to be natural and the conflict between men and women was hidden behind a â€Å"natural division of labor†. Also, if women united it would threaten the strength of the people in a Marxist society. Wittig concludes by calling attention again to the rejection of the myth of Woman. She believes that the categories of sex must be destroyed and that all sciences that use these definitions should also be rejected. She again comes back to the model of lesbianism; she states that this is the only category that goes beyond woman and man currently. So, in order to reject this myth of Woman we must destroy â€Å"heterosexuality as a social system which is based on the oppression of women by men and which produces the doctrine of the difference between the sexes to justify this oppression† Literary Evidence Her discussion is based on Simone de Beauvoir’s quote: â€Å"One is not born a woman, but becomes a woman. No biological, psychological, or economic fate determines the figure that the human female presents in society: it is civilization as a whole that produces this creature, intermediate between male and eunuch (a man who has been castrated), which is described as feminine†. â€Å"Not only is this conception still imprisoned in the categories of sex (woman and man), but it holds onto the idea that the capacity to give birth is what defines a woman† â€Å"Before the socioeconomic reality of black slavery, the concept of race did not exist, at least not in this modern meaning, since it was applied to the lineage of families† â€Å"But what we believe to be a physical and direct perception is only a sophisticated and mythic construction, an imaginary formation, which reinterprets physical features (in themselves as neutral but marked by the social system) through the network of relationships in which they are perceived. They are seen as black, therefore they are black; they are seen as women, therefore, they are women. But before being seen that way, they first had to be made that way.† †¦.said to belong to a natural order.† â€Å"To refuse to be a woman, however,  does not mean that one has to become a man [referring to lesbians]†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Thus a lesbian has to be something else, a not-woman, a not-man, a product of society, not a product of nature, for there is no nature in society.† â€Å"The refusal to become (or to remain) heterosexual always meant to refuse to become a man or a woman, consciously or not. For a lesbian, this goes further†¦. It is the refusal of the economic, ideological and political power of a man.† â€Å"†¦ Simone de Beauvoir underlined particularly the false consciousness which consists of selecting among the features of the myth (that women are different from men) those which look good and using them as a definition for women†¦.. defining women the best features (best according to whom?) which oppression has granted us, and it does not radically question the categories â€Å"man† and â€Å"woman†, which are political categories and not natural givens.† Feminist- â€Å"Someone who fights for women as a class and for the disappearance of this class†¦ Someone who fights for woman and her defense-for the myth, then, its reinforcement.† Early feminism – â€Å"†¦for them these features where natural and biological rather than social. They adopted the Darwinist theory of evolution. They did not believe like Darwin however that women were less evolved than men, but they did believe that male and female natures had diverged in the course of evolutionary development†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Our fight aims to suppress men as a class, not through a genocidal, but a political struggle. Once the class â€Å"men† disappears, â€Å"women† as a class will disappear as well, for there are no slaves without masters†. â€Å"But to become a class we do not have to suppress our individual selves, and since no individual can be reduced to her/his oppression we are also confronted with the historical necessity of constituting ourselves as the individual subjects of our history as well.† â€Å"There is no possible fight for someone deprived of an identity†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Speaking of Marxism – â€Å"For women, Marxism had two results. It prevented them from being aware that they are a class and therefore from constituting themselves as a class for a very long time, by leaving the relation, â€Å"women/men† outside of the social order, by turning into a natural relation†¦ Marxist theory does not allow women any more than other classes of oppressed people to constitute themselves as historical subjects, because Marxism does not take into account the fact that a class also consists of  individuals one by one.† â€Å"The opposite is also true; without class and class consciousness there are no real subjects, only alienated individuals†¦.. The advent of individual subjects demands first destroying the categories of sex.† â€Å"We are escapees from our own class in the same way as the American runaway slaves were then escaping slavery and becoming free† â€Å"This can be accomplished only by the destruction of heterosexuality as a social system which is based on the oppression of women by men and which produces the doctrine of the difference between sexes to justify this oppression.† Reference to previous readings Women’s Time – Julia Kristeva (giving birth as a realization of womanhood) The Laugh of the Medusa – Cixous (beauty myth)